What contribution did Edward Jenner make to medicine?

The person I have chosen to write about is Edward Jenner. He was born in 1749 and is famous as the first doctor to introduce and study the smallpox vaccine. I am interested by his work as it was the basis of the science of immunology, resulting in many medical advances, the benefits of which can be seen in medicine today. Smallpox is a virus spread through coughing, sneezing and physical contact with an infected person. Epidemics broke out in Britain every few years, resulting in many deaths. In the eighteenth century a method of inoculation was introduced to Britain. This reduced the chance of dying from smallpox, yet it carried with it many risks. Whilst offering inoculations against smallpox, Edward Jenner, a doctor from Gloucestershire, discovered that those who had previously suffered from cowpox were less likely to catch smallpox than those who hadn't. He subsequently came up with the idea of using cowpox, a mild disease, as a method of prevention. In an attempt to prove this theory, Jenner conducted an experiment in which he took matter from a cowpox sore and inserted it into a boy through two cuts. After slight uneasiness in the following days, the boy was perfectly well. He was then inoculated with smallpox matter, which was repeated again several months later, but no disease followed on either occasion. After completing the experiment 23 times, he came to the conclusion that ‘cowpox protects the human constitution from the infection of smallpox'. Although Jenner was unable to prove his theory, his vaccination saved many lives. He recorded and published his findings himself as there was much opposition to vaccinations at first. This was because some people found it hard to accept anything new, especially when there was no explanation as to why it worked. Also, if his vaccinations proved to be a success, doctors would lose the income they received from providing inoculations. As well as this, some people saw the vaccination as dangerous. This was for reasons including doctors accidentally infecting patients with smallpox instead of cowpox or using infected needles, both of which resulted in many deaths. However, Jenner's work paid off, and in 1840 the British government provided vaccination free of charge. The main reason that I am interested in Jenner is that he was able to come up with a successful method of prevention of smallpox without advanced technology. His observations and experiments provided accurate results leading to life saving treatment, which I feel was one of the biggest medical achievements up until that time considering that smallpox had previously been one of the biggest killer diseases. He was not put off by the ‘less than enthusiastic' view of the public, choosing to record his findings personally in hope that they would one day be accepted and prove to be useful (which is what finally happened). Also, his work greatly contributed to later medical advances. It was the basis of immunology, which was to be pursued with success by Pasteur and others half a century later, helped by technological advancements. His observations had a large influence on the declaration of smallpox as an eradicated disease in 1980 by the World Health Organisation. In conclusion, Edward Jenner was a man who was able to make a large contribution to the advancement of medicine and prevention of death from smallpox. This, in my opinion, makes him a prominent and essential figure in history.

Assessment and its important part of education process

Recently, research workers have progressively recognised the importance of formative appraisal in bettering kids ‘s advancement and attainment ( Bone, 1999 ; Wiliam et al. , 2004 ) . Although groundss provided in this work suggest that policies have underestimated the complexness of this sort of assessment- and that some instructors find it hard to do- the benefits of formative appraisal can far outweigh the disadvantages. Appraisal has become a really of import portion of instruction procedure and it has advanced well over the past old ages ( Johnston et al. , 2009 ; Hall and Burk, 2004 ) and, as our instruction system becomes more course of study focused, the accent moves progressively to how instructors teach and how kids are taught ( Butt, 2010 ) . In this position, acquisition is concerned with the building of apprehension, accomplishments and attitudes ( Johnston, 1996 ; Pritchard, 2005 ) . In other words, it is concerned with the type of larning pupils become involved with. In add-on, why and how we assess students has an tremendous impact on their educational experience and accordingly on how and what they learn ( Wynne, 2007 ) . In the visible radiation of these, this work aims to specify what appraisal is, puting peculiar focal point in the formative appraisal. It will besides critically analyze how formative appraisal may back up students ‘ acquisition, back uping the analysis with theories on kid development and kids ‘s acquisition, every bit good as observations and grounds from school experiences. Appraisal ‘ The appraisal of kids has to function a assortment of intent, but it is chiefly to inform determinations made by the instructor about what work a kid is capable of pull offing ‘ . Hayes ( 2006 ) Assessment means different things in different contexts and it is besides carried out for different intents ( Arthur et al. , 2006 ) . During my preliminary fond regard I noticed that instructors were measuring all the clip and some of those appraisals were traveling on besides during learning. For illustration, while learning, instructors picked up information about kids ‘s cognition through eavesdropping ( where in group treatment, the instructor would stand by a tabular array, but listening to the other table treatment alternatively ) or oppugning and they besides assessed the degree of apprehension of the category through a speedy quiz or game at the beginning or terminal of the lesson. Those appraisals have helped instructors to see what works and what does non in footings of pupil acquisition. However, they normally used this information to measure their ain lesson and/or the degree of cognition and apprehension of the category, instead than to do formal appraisals which could be fed back to students ( Preliminary Attachment, 2010 ) . From reflecting in illustrations from theory and pattern, it is possible to state that appraisal in instruction involves doing opinions about students ‘ attainments ( Alexander, 2010 ; Preliminary Attachment, 2010 ) . In other words, it involves instructors make up one's minding on how they will roll up information, what information is relevant, how they will come to a opinion and so how to describe and notice a judgement to those who want to cognize how students are accomplishing ( Arthur et al. , 2006 ; Aldgate et al. , 2006 ; Hayes, 2006 ; Hughes, 2008 ) . In add-on, appraisal is frequently divided into summational and formative classs for the intent of sing different aims for appraisal patterns ( Pollard et al. , 2005 ; Arthur, et al. , 2006 ; Butt, 2010 ) . Yet, argument continues over whether and how summational and formative appraisal should be distinguished ( Threlfall, 2005 ; Wynne, 2005 ) . In its summational function, the intent of appraisal is to judge students ‘ quality and features, summarizing these in a clear and widely acceptable format. Summational appraisal is besides known as appraisal of acquisition ( Threlfall, 2005 ; Arthur et al. , 2006 ) and grounds for this type of appraisal may come from formal testing of what has been learnt, taking to bring forth Markss or classs which may be used for different intents, such as studies of assorted types ( Pollard et al. , 2008 ) . Furthermore, surveies indicate that summational appraisal can hold a negative impact on pupils ‘ motive for larning, as instead than adv ancing ‘intrinsic ‘ motivation- in which they perform because they are interested and engaged with the work, summational appraisal is believed to advance ‘extrinsic ‘ motive, in which pupils merely react to the promise of some sort of wages ( Crooks, 1988 ; Sansome and Harackiewicz, 2000 ; Wynne, 2001 ) . On the other manus, appraisal besides has a formative map. In this function, appraisal is closely linked with pupils ‘ acquisition procedures, naming pupils ‘ strengths and failings, assisting pupils to develop self-awareness ; supplying feedback on countries of larning necessitating farther work ; assisting to steer them in their surveies and by and large actuating them and advancing the coveted acquisition result ( Pollard et al. , 2008 ; Alexander, 2010 ) . FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT AND PUPILS ‘ Learning ‘Assessment for acquisition is any appraisal for which the first precedence in its design and pattern is to function the intent of advancing students ‘ acquisition. It therefore differs from appraisal designed chiefly to function the intents of answerability, or of superior, or of attesting competency ‘ . ( Black et al. , 2002, p.7 ) Furthermore, harmonizing to researches, some of the cardinal elements of formative appraisal include the designation by instructors and pupils of larning ends, purposes or results and standards for accomplishment ; conversations, with feedback, between instructors and pupils that build on what is known and what is to be learned ; active engagement of pupils in their ain acquisition and besides instructors reacting to identified larning demands and strengths by modifying and/or accommodating instruction schemes, stuffs and attacks ( Stiggins, 1992 ; Stiggins and Conklin, 1992 ; Fontana and Fernandes, 1994 ; Fredrickson and White, 1997 ; Black and Wiliam, 1998a ; Shepard, 2000 ; Boston, 2002 ; Guskey, 2003 ; Liang and Creasy, 2004 ) . In the visible radiation of these, instructors can utilize the information of where pupils are holding problem and how they are come oning, to do necessary accommodations, such as re-teaching and seeking alternate instructional attacks. These activities c an take to improved students success. Harmonizing to Pryor and Crossouard ( 2005, p. 2 ) formative appraisal occupies a ‘curious and somewhat self-contradictory ‘ place within educational theory. Although may be argued that formative appraisal has ever been a cardinal portion of educational pattern it was merely in the late sixtiess and seventiess that the term was invented ( Black and Wiliam, 2003 ) . Furthermore, as a consequence of a turning international dissatisfaction with current signifiers of appraisal, formative appraisal was one of a figure of thoughts that attracted the attending of educational research workers ( Bloom et al. , 1971 ) . Since the beginning of the 1990s it has enjoyed considerable attending, particularly in schools, under the rubric of Assessment for Learning, following Caroline Gipps ‘s differentiation from appraisal of acquisition ( Gipps, 1994 ) . Part of this involvement has involved a acknowledgment that dominant signifiers of summational appraisal did non hold a good tan trum with constructivist larning theories, whereas formative appraisal seemed to offer distinguishable possibilities. Since so a significant figure of surveies, peculiarly in the UK, at all degrees of instruction have attempted to aline formative appraisal with modern-day psychological theories of acquisition ( Gipps et al.,1995 ; Boud 1995 ; Black et al. , 2002 ; Hall and Burke 2003 ) and others have besides taken history of sociological positions ( Torrance and Pryor 1998 ; Filer and Pollard 2000 ; Ecclestone 2002 ) . In add-on, in order to incorporate formative appraisal into schoolroom pattern, a scope of appraisal schemes and techniques are presently in topographic point taking to better students ‘ acquisition. Some of those schemes, which I have had the chance to detect and critically analyse during my preliminary fond regard, are: feedback, self- appraisal and schoolroom treatment. Feedback ‘Unless pupils are able to utilize the feedback to bring forth improved work, neither they nor those giving the feedback will cognize that it has been effectual ‘ . ( Boud, 2000, p.158 ) Black and Wiliam ( 1998a ) research on whether formative appraisal raises academic criterions in the schoolroom, shows that attempts to beef up formative appraisal can bring forth important acquisition additions ( Black and Wiliam, 1998b ) and their analysis of these surveies has shown that feedback resulted in positive benefits on acquisition and accomplishment across all content countries, cognition and accomplishment types and degrees of instruction ( Black and Wiliam, 1998a ) . Furthermore, when feedback is given as portion of formative appraisal, it helps to steer students through the actions they need to accomplish their end, doing them cognizant of any gaps existent between their current cognition, understanding or accomplishment and their coveted end ( Ramaprasad, 1983 ; Sadler, 1989 ) . Besides, it is taken for granted by constructivist theory that supplying information or feedback to pupils in an ongoing mode, such as that which formative appraisal should supply, will bring forth positive consequences ( Shepard, 2000 ) . Yet, during my preliminary fond regard, I have observed a twelvemonth 2 instructor giving pupils feedback information on their work. The scheme in topographic point was called ‘two stars and a wish ‘ , where the instructor collected students ‘ work and compared their public presentation to the acquisition ends, foregrounding two good points about their work and one point necessitating betterment. The instructor gave students their work back, bespeaking students to set their initials below the feedback to show that they have understood what needed to be improved. However, I have observed that some students, who put their initials below the feedback, found the feedback hard to understand, particularly when the acquisition ends had non been assimilated in first topographic point. For illustration, a peculiar student had the feedback: ‘Make certain you use two adjectives in your sentence to depict people and topographic points ‘ ( Preliminary Attachment, 2010 ) . This feedback given by the instructor was non sufficient to assist this peculiar student to shut the spread, as he did non to the full understand what adjectives were in first topographic point and was still unable to use this cognition in his hereafter work. Black and Wiliam ( 1998a ) farther elaborate on this communicating issue when they discuss the links between the manner a feedback message is received and what pupils do w ith that message. Besides, Hayes ( 2006 ) argues that in offering feedback, instructors must utilize remarks which guarantee that students understand their significance. He besides suggests that, ideally, kids should be given clip to believe and react to the instructor ‘s remark and be involved in the appraisal procedure, instead than inactive receivers, as these give them a sense of ownership in their acquisition. This position is shared by Piaget, who is concerned with the cognition and apprehension and the manner which new information is dealt with by immature scholars ( Sullivan, 1969 ) . Furthermore, the larning theory of Piaget and Inhelder ( McCarthy Gallagher and Reid, 2002 ) , which is the first effort to garner together constructs and research surveies of Piaget ‘s cognitive theory that direct relates to larning theories, besides suggest that the growing in cognition is frequently sparkled by a feedback procedure that consequences from oppugning, contradictions and accordingly reorganization. This manner, it is important that any theoretical account of feedback must take history of the manner pupils make sense of, and usage, feedback information, as suggested by Black and Wiliam ( 1998a ) . On the other manus, another observation on instructor ‘s feedback, evidenced during my preliminary fond regard, in a twelvemonth 6 category, had a more positive result. The instructor sat beside the student while giving him feedback and she explained to the student what needed improving, clear uping any misconceptions. Besides, when written feedback was given, kids were encouraged to react with a written remark of their ain. It was observed that this scheme has helped kids to make full the spreads and advancement in their acquisition, as the feedback to pupils was focused on accomplishment and had identified the following stairss in acquisition, in ways that students could understand and move upon ( Preliminary Attachment, 2010 ) . This is supported by Duschl and Gitomer ( 1997 ) , who argue that aggregations of pupil work may besides be used formatively if pupils every bit good as instructors annotate their remarks and continually detect their advancement. These show that the most helpful type of feedback on prep and trials are the 1s which instructors provide students with specific remarks sing to mistakes, offering specific suggestions for betterment and besides promoting students to concentrate their attending on their undertaking, instead than merely being concerned if their replies are right ( Bangert-Drowns et al.,1991 ; Elawar and Corno, 1985 ; Irons, 2007 ) . SELF- ASSESSMENT ‘It is clear that self-esteem, so cardinal to success both in school and in life more by and large, harmonizing to recent research, is all excessively frequently eroded by the experience of negative ratings. ( Weeden et al. , 2002, p. 152 ) Learners can besides play an of import function in formative appraisal through self-evaluation. This position is supported by experimental research surveies which have shown that when pupils understand the acquisition aims and assessment standards and are given chances to reflect on their work, they normally show greater betterment when comparing with those who do non ( Fontana and Fernandes, 1994 ; Frederikson and White, 1997 ) . In add-on, surveies show that public presentation additions were besides witnessed among pupils with larning disablements who are taught to utilize self-monitoring schemes related to their apprehension of reading and composing undertakings ( McCurdy and Shapiro, 1992 ; Sawyer et al. , 1992 ) . During my preliminary fond regard, twelvemonth 6 students were encouraged to measure their work by composing a remark saying if they found their work easily, mean or difficult. Students were besides encouraged to put marks for themselves and observe what aspects needed betterment. In this juncture, students demonstrated to be actively engaged with their self-assessment and were able to build their cognition and set challenges for themselves in order to accomplish their ends ( Preliminary Attachment, 2010 ) . Piaget suggests that kids should be free to work in different ways and learn through active geographic expedition and personal find ( Sullivan, 1969 ) and from a constructivist point of position, acquisition is non a inactive procedure and so, battle must be at the start of the procedure of acquisition ( Pritchard, 2005 ) . In other words, pupils learn most efficaciously when they actively construct their ain cognition, understanding and accomplishments based on their ain explora tory activities and contemplation. In add-on to this, active battle is an index that existent acquisition takes topographic point and cognizing that they can get by with troubles makes students seek challenges and get the better of farther jobs ( Clark, 2008 ) . Besides, Vygotsky ‘s Zone of Proximal Development ( Vygotsky, 1978 ; Smidt, 2006 ) shows that students learn best when they have a somewhat hard undertaking which they have to work at and which leads them to a province of ‘flow ‘ . Claxton ( 2002 ) suggests that ‘flow ‘ describes how engaged a individual is in an activity, the degree of soaking up and how engaged they are in their acquisition. However, in the same school, twelvemonth 1 students were asked to measure their work by seting their work in the several trays: smiley face if the work was easy, impersonal face if the work was all right and sad face if the work was difficult. While standing beside the trays, detecting the students while they assessed their work, I notice a kid stating: ‘I found this work hard, but I do n't wish sad faces! ‘ The kid them put her work in the tray with a smiley face ( Preliminary Attachment, 2010 ) . Over the last decennary there has been an increasing involvement in schemes that encourage pupils to take a more active function in the direction of their ain acquisition ( Falkchikov, 1995 ; Hyland, 2000 ) . Black and Wiliam ( 1998a, p.54 ) make the statement that ‘a pupil who automatically follows the diagnostic prescription of a instructor without apprehension of its intent will non larn ‘ , while Sadler ( 1989 ) argues that the intent of formative appraisal should be to fit pupils bit by bit with the appraising accomplishments that their instructors ‘ possess. On the other manus, the fact that the pupil found the work hard, yet placed it inside the smiley face tray, can be related to the kid ‘s self-esteem. Clark ( 2008 ) argues that kids love to be praised for their intelligence and endowment, but if this is the norm, the minute they encounter an obstruction, their assurance beads. If success means that they are clever, than, failure can merely intend the y are non. In the visible radiation of this, students can non work with the message that they can accomplish their marks by seting things right when they are clouded by overtones about ability, competition and comparing with others ( Black and Wiliam, 1998b ; Miller and Lavin, 2007 ) . Studies show ( Elliot and Dwenck, 1988 ; Dwenck, 1989 ) that schemes based on public presentation ends, such as smiley faces, adversely affects public presentation and they tend to take students to impute trouble to low ability and go disquieted when faced with trouble or failure ( Clark, 2008 ) . Miller and Lavin ( 2007, p.6 ) argue that there is limited research grounds which shows that formative appraisal will non needfully hold good effects on self-pride. However, they suggest that there is a demand to look into contexts where instructors are doing usage of formative appraisal as an built-in portion of their daily instruction, such as: ‘in busy primary schoolrooms, over longer periods of clip and utilizing a scope of different schemes and techniques presently endorsed as ‘good pattern ‘ , in order to happen out whether formative appraisal procedures might impact kids to different grades or in different ways. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION ‘What a kid can make in co-operation today, he will be able to make entirely tomorrow ‘ . ( Vygotsky, 1962 ) Since the end of formative appraisal is to give instructors an apprehension of what pupils know, or do n't cognize, and utilize this information to do antiphonal alterations in instruction and acquisition, schemes such as schoolroom treatment and instructor observation have an of import topographic point alongside analysis of trials and prep ( Spendlove, 2009 ) . Furthermore, the usage of oppugning and schoolroom treatment as chances to better students understanding and increase their cognition is besides encouraged by Black and Wiliam ( 1998b ) . However, they caution that instructors need to guarantee that thoughtful and brooding inquiries are asked, instead than simple and factual 1s, and pupils must be given equal clip to react. During my preliminary fond regard I had the chance to detect two categories where the instructors had in topographic point a scheme called think-pair-share, where the instructors gave the category a subject and asked kids to discourse their thought in brace or in groups of four. If in groups, students had to take one representative to portion the thought with the category. The instructors took into history kids ‘s old cognition of the topic and built on it to scaffold kids ‘s acquisition. Sing to cognitive development, the treatment was really productive and led to higher quality authorship, a higher degree of speech production and hearing and it has besides increased students assurance in their ability to lend. However, although some instructors in the school acknowledged that treatment and scaffold duologue have a great cognitive potency, they found this scheme really hard, as it demanded much on instructors ‘ accomplishments and capable cognition ( Preliminary At tachment, 2010 ) . Spendlove ( 2009 ) argues that although the think-pair-share scheme requires readying from the instructor, when used efficaciously, it engages the whole category in thought, speech production and listening through treatment and sharing co-operative acquisition with equals. In add-on, Torrance and Pryor ( 1998, p. 131 ) suggest that a focal point group appraisal can bring forth a great trade of information about kids ‘s cognition accomplishments and understanding piece at the same clip contribute to the procedure of making apprehension. Every kid is alone ( DfES, 2004 ) , develops in different gait ( DCSF, 2008 ) and has his/her ain storage of cognition ( Fisher, 1995 ) . Children can make a batch of speaking when given clip and infinite by a instructor prepared to listen and detect ( Robson, 2006 ) . Such talk provides grounds of kids ‘s advancement to day of the month but besides scaffolds the acquisition of the group as they interrogate each other about the nature of th e undertaking and collaborate to carry through it ( Hill and Hill, 1996 ; Shepard, 2005 ) . Furthermore, for Vygotsky, societal interaction has a critical function in a kid ‘s instruction ( Vygotsky 1962 ; 1978 ; Daniels, 1996 ) . Besides, Bruner states that ‘making sense is a societal procedure ‘ ( Bruner and Haste, 1987 ) .This means that we become who we are through take parting in the communities around us and our acquisition is reconstructed through battle with others ( Lave and Wenger, 1991 ; Kehily, 2005 ; Smidt, 2006 ) . This is because, with others, we can make more and achieve more than we can make on our ain. Furthermore, Shepard ( 2000 ) links this type of schoolroom appraisal with the constructivist motion, which suggests that larning is an active procedure, constructing on old cognition, experience, accomplishments and involvements. So, since acquisition is extremely individualized, constructivism recognises that learning must be adaptative to the context, affecting complex decision-making, and necessitating that a instructor draws upon a scope of techniques ( Giebelhaus and Bowman, 2002 ) . Besides, Fisher ( 1995 ) argues that kids should be provided with challenges that extend their cognitive potency. For Vygotsky ( 1978 ) , this possible ( Zone of Proximal Development ) exists non merely in the kid ‘s head, but it besides lies in the accomplishments, thoughts, experiences and from the kid ‘s societal interaction with his/her equals. Decision ‘When instructors ‘ schoolroom appraisals become an built-in portion of the instructional procedure and a cardinal ingredient in their attempts to assist pupils larn, the benefits of appraisal for both pupils and instructors will be unbounded ‘ . Guskey, ( 2003, p. 11 ) Evidence from researches clearly indicates that good, well-developed and effectual formative appraisal does hold a powerful impact on pupil acquisition and can be a critical constituent in our attempts to better instruction ( Assessment Reform Group, 1999 ; Guskey, 2003 ) . Further, formative appraisal changes the rhythm ‘s consequence where students attribute hapless public presentation a deficiency of ability, which discourages them to put in their hereafter acquisition. It besides supports the outlook that all can larn to high degrees ( Ames, 1992 ; Vispoel and Austin, 1995 ) . Yet, some instructors argue that measuring pupils for the intent of informing future planning and instruction can non be easy accommodated alongside measuring students for the intent of class/school answerability. This is because, in order to describe classs and meet answerability, instructors by and large need to take portion in or set about some summational appraisal. This manner, the intent of summ ational appraisal remains rather different from the intent of formative appraisal in monitoring and bettering advancement ( Herman et al. , 1992 ) . In add-on, groundss in this work suggest that considerable sweetenings in pupil accomplishment are possible when instructors use assessment, daily, to set their instruction to run into their pupils ‘ acquisition demands. However, it is besides clear that doing such alterations is much more than merely adding a few modus operandis to one ‘s normal pattern. It involves a alteration of focal point from what the instructor is seting into the procedure and to what the scholar is acquiring out of it. Besides, the extremist nature of the alterations means that instructors need extra support for detecting and/or developing formative appraisal tools, which non merely inform pupils and instructors about advancement, but provide aid on where the spreads are and how to continue. Furthermore, it is important that instructors acknowledge that every kid is alone ( DfES, 2004 ; Aldgate et al. , 2006 ; DCSF, 2008 ) and that development is a procedure which involves interaction between the turning kid and his/her societal environment ( Vygotsky, 1978 ) . So, if acquisition is to take topographic point, it is indispensable that instructors take kid development and larning theories earnestly and use this cognition in their appraisal and intercessions ( Department of Health et al. , 2000 ) .

Occupational Folklife Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Size up Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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Vietnam War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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Analysis strokes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Analysis strokes - Essay Example In the breaststroke style, a swimmer swims on his chestandtorso. The swimmers headremains out of waterwhileheswims. Before 1950, there wererules in theswimmingcompetitionwere one race under thewater in the breaststroke (Hannula,2003). Theunderwaterracingproved to be dangerous as swimmers suffocatedwhile under thewater. To date, thesetechniqueshavebeenimproved as peoplechangetherules, swimmers nowrace on thewatersurface. Swimmers are allowed to stay under thewater during one strokecyclewhenstartingand after eachturn. Breaststrokers createlargeforces during the propulsive phases of eachstrokecycle. In the breaststroke, there are three phases during themotion of thebody. The out-sweep, the in sweepandtherecoveryphases. Out- sweepandthe in sweep are both propulsive movement with in-sweep beingthemorepowerful of the two. The out-sweep begins after a swimmer extend their legsfully. Armssweep outwards as shoulders medially rotateand adduct. Theyhave to remainstraight until thepressure of thewatercausesthearm to flex. Thebodylies horizontally as itforms a Y shape. One pitches their palms outandbackandhandstossed outwards at near 90 degrees as well as backwardangle of up to40 degreesfortheforwardmovement. Upperarms should be parallel to thewatersurface, andshoulders medially rotated to allowpulldirectlystraightback (Maglischo, 2003). In the in sweepphase, handscontinue to circle to facedownwardandinward, becominginwardandupward. One has to reachapproximately 100degrees of theelbow flexion, with maximummedialturning of theshoulder to permitgreatestsurfacearea to pushback on thewater.Elbows should remainparallel to thewatersurface. Handspass under theelbows, as theelbows flex maximally. Asthehandsbegin to moveupward, thehipsdrop, initiatinghipandknee flexion (Ferrauti, A., Pluim, B. M., & Weber, K. 2001). In therecoveryphase, handscometogether with palms

PESTEL Analysis of TopShop in China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

PESTEL Analysis of TopShop in China - Essay Example The decision came to public knowledge in 2007when Top Shop signed a deal to own a store in Shanghai Super Brand Mal which is located in the hub of financial activity in China. The intervention of Chinese government in the economy is very high. This is because China has the social system of government. As a multinational the competition laws are very important. The local government must give foreign firms equal opportunity in the market. This is a severe issue in China, as the government supports its local companies at all cost. The Economy of China is booming and has the fastest growth rate over the last two decades by a long margin. After the economic recession in the western world, china has further gained a very dominating position in world markets. The GDP of China is reported at 4.91 trillion USD. Moreover a staggering GDP growth of 8.3% has been shown by China. Another important factor is the increase in per capita income of Chinese people. This factor is directly related to investment decision of a apparel company. The society of China is quickly changing. There was a time when china was called a city of bicycles. The situation has however changed over the last few years. The increase in income levels of Chinese consumer has ensured that their life styles have also changed. New imported Mercedes cars can be seen on streets of China. Fashion icons such as Gucci, Dolce, Zara etc are part of this new social shift in Chinese culture. China is equipped with latest manufacturing technology. The fact that they are the world’s largest outsourcer is a testament to this statement. The Chinese government has long fostered a culture of importing and locally encouraging the use of latest technology to foster China’s growth as the world’s first choice in outsourcing. Due to its very large area China experiences a diverse range of climates. The northern zone has a day time temperature of more

Analysis of Design for the Real World Book Essay

Analysis of Design for the Real World Book - Essay Example Factors such as market preference always overshadow the ability of the designer to achieve the full potential of any plan conceived. In turn, most designers will seek to satisfy the market preferences first rather than moral and social responsibility. This trend is common with many designers and it has been so for the last few years. It paramount that checks and balances are put in place to protect the designs from deviating so much into the markets. It is very easy for a designer to be consumed by the happenings of a market, so much that he forgets to put in his social and moral responsibility to the society. What this means is that the designs that the particular designer will be dealing with will have more of a sales direction rather than the ethics and responsibilities to nature and humanity. Now the role of a designer as an advocate does not exist. Things are put in the market for the reason that someone or some entity feels that there might be some remittance from introducing a new product. For example, a chair manufacturing company will introduce a new chair to the market only to get some extra coins from the sales. The designers will have to come up with new designs that are not in the market now. Some of the social and moral responsibilities will be broken in order for them to come up with the perfect design. The design might not be perfect but as long as it satisfies the market needs, the bosses will authorize the sale s of the chair. As it, turn out consumer testing must be done on the product before sales are incited. Testing is done regularly on the chairs by asking a group of people to sit on the chair for long hours to see if one of the legs will crumble under the pressure. Sometimes comfort is not in the mind of a designer who is market-oriented.

Luekemia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Luekemia - Essay Example Acute leukemia refers to the rapid multiplication of immature blood cells hampering the bone marrows to function efficiently. On the other hand chronic leukemia is characterized by the excessive production of mature yet abnormal blood cells which results in the presence of many white cells in the blood. Acute leukemia is also relatively slower to progress than chronic leukemia and may not present any symptom (Leukemia and Lymphoma Society 3-4). Up to date, there is still little knowledge about the exact causes of leukemia. Physicians however, explain that a person's environment has a lot to do with his/her chances of having this disease. Based on studies people who are exposed to high levels of radiation are in a greater risk of contracting this disease. Natural or ionizing radiation caused by atomic bomb explosion, nuclear power plant accidents, and other medical treatments increases the risk of leukemia (Medicine Net.com 3). Exposure to certain chemicals like benzene and formaldehyde has also been linked to this type of cancer. Some forms of leukemia are caused by viruses like the chronic lymphocytic leukemia which is caused by the human T-cell leukemia virus-1 (Medicine Net.com 3). Four techniques are commonly used to treat leukemia. Chemotherapy is the most common treatment where a drug or combinations of drugs are used to kill leukemia cells.

Film Mini analysis City of God ( 2002) Assignment

Film Mini analysis City of God ( 2002) - Assignment Example A lot of people start chasing the animal and shouting at others to catch it. The narrator, whose nickname is Rocket (Buscape), finds himself very close to the chicken and tries to grab it. At this point he realizes he is right in the middle of the way with the police and the criminals at each side. He starts talking about how it is harsh to live in that favela and says an expression that can be literaly translated into: "If you run away, the beast catches you, if you stay still, the beast eats you". That means that there are no options once you are in that place, in that kind of situation. The only question is how you're gonna make it until the next day. This scene is intense since its beginning because it shows how desperated the chicken is to escape. All other chickens are being killed and scalped, but that one managed to run away while the motion of the camera can capture that escape closely. However, the lucky chicken will probably be eaten sometime later. That might be the case with people. Some of them struggle not to get involved in the surrounding criminality, but not all of them succeed. Rocket and many others lived the same reality.

Reflective Paper Essay Example for Free

Reflective Paper Essay Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s culture is more superior to others and that they hold all others in comparison to their own. It is a concept that was introduced in the beginning of this course and has played a role in discussions throughout the semester. At first it is difficult to understand what ethnocentrism is and why it plays such a prominent role, but with the reoccurring appearance of the term in class, the importance behind it becomes more evident. If an individual has the perspective of being ethnocentric, then they limit themselves because of the mindset they have on the world. In cultural anthropology it is of great importance that researchers do not take on an ethnocentric perspective, because they learn more if they can set their own views and biases aside and focus on a different culture. Ethnocentrism leads to a narrow-minded perspective that isolates one set of ideas, values and morals. A society with an ethnocentric view believes that their culture is the center of everything, and that anything different or new to them is not sufficient. If a community of people with ethnocentric views were to gain power, then they could go to such extreme as to impose their ideas onto others who may have a different perspective. It is seen in history with racial segregation and the genocide of a race such as in the case of the Nazi power in Germany and the holocaust. In today’s time, when culture is constantly changing with globalization, to have an ethnocentric perspective can cause great interference with international relations. Anthropologists benefit a great deal from observing and learning from other cultures. They use a variety of methods and strategies to avoid ethnocentric interpretations. These methods may include, but are not limited to, surveys, interviews with individuals and participant observation. In the novel Veiled Sentiments author and anthropologist Lila Abu-Lughod describes her experience in the Bedouin community by saying â€Å"in a society where kinship defines most relationships, it was important to have a role as a fictive kinsperson in order to participate† (15). For Abu-Lughod to observe the intimate and personal moments of the Bedouins, she had to leave behind the culture she was used to in the United States of America to convince the natives of the community to take her into their culture. It is not unusual for an anthropologist to submerse themselves into the society that they are observing. Most find that they benefit and learn more if they go into their fieldwork with an open mind and assume a role in the society instead of retaining the position of an outsider. By stepping out of their own culture and into another, they can begin to understand why some people act and live a particular way. Laura Bohannan experienced such an situation during her fieldwork in Africa, she stated beforehand â€Å"that human nature is pretty much the same the whole world over; at least the general plot and motivation of the greater tragedies would always be clear everywhere. Although, some details of custom might have to be explained and difficulties of translation might produce other slight changes† what she did not understand at the time was the in depth differences between cultures (41). The exposure and research that anthropologists gathered can be relayed to other individuals and situations in their own society. With the knowledge gained in the work of cultural anthropology, an individual can critique one’s own culture and devise solutions to social problems. A society is expected to learn and expand over the passing of time. It is crucial that we do not fall into an ethnocentric mind set. The world is a diverse place with many philosophies on how to live life. By taking on the role of observing instead of judging, we can embark on finding out what these beliefs are and why they are followed by people. We can better understand how the world works. If an individual has the perspective of being ethnocentric, then they limit themselves because of the mindset they have on the world. Works Cited Abu-lughod, Lila. Veiled Sentiments. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986. Print. Spradley, James P., and David W. McCurdy. Shakespeare in the Bush. Conformity and Conflict: Readings in Cultural Anthropology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2012. 41-47. Print.

Grief, death and the psychology of dying

Grief, death and the psychology of dying Different people of different religions, race, age and culture have different perceptions of death and the way to go about the loss. The following research tries to explain why people behave the way they do in their different manner. It defines death and grief, why, when and how they occur. It also explains about the misconceptions that people have about death and grief. It gives a more understanding of these phenomena and explores what people go through when they experience them. The paper also gives solutions on how a person should handle the situation once it has happened to him. Grief is the reaction to loss; it is mainly associated with a loss of something or someone to whom a person had formed a bond with. A person can respond to grief emotionally, socially, physically or even through the way they behave. Grief is caused by loss of a variety of things. It can be as a result of a divorce, an illness, loss of someones possessions, status, employment, pets and loved ones (OConnor, Irwin, Wellisch, 2009). Different people react differently when they go through a loss. The different reactions may be as a result of what one has lost. These reactions may be manifested from one person to another or within the same person. The different reactions emanate from peoples diversity cultures, personalities, age, religious and spiritual practices and beliefs (Kubler, 1991) Grief exacerbates both and physical and psychiatric morbidity. This is common especially after a loss of a spouse. During this period, the bereaved usually exhibits symptoms such as headaches, heart palpitations, dizziness and trembling. The bereaved also tends to suffer from depressive symptoms during the first year after the loss. Those who are bereaved young tend to take more symptom relief drugs as well as showing more physical distress than older people. For the older people, the number of visits to the physician as well as hospitalization increases during the time of physical distress. Grieving is an early and old phenomenon. During the olden days, people used to seek help with their grief from religious leaders, extended families, and close neighborhoods as well religious institutions. Today, because of secularization, lack of a sense of community and lack of belief in formal religion, has led to the bereaved seeking help from health workers (Worden, 2002). Children differ in mourning with adults. They tend to return to an earlier behavior like clinging to a toy, thumb sucking or even depicting an angry behavior. They are not mature to mourn like adults but they mourn intensely. A loss in childhood can result to emotional problems as well as physical illness. This poses a great risk as the child can contemplate suicide or become a delinquent. This is mostly common in adolescents (Kubler, 1991) Dr. Elisabeth Kubler-Ross believed that grief has its own stages. These stages include emotional reactions like denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. She advises that understanding grief is an important part of the human experience as it is a necessary response that helps to heal from the overwhelming experience of loss (Kubler, 1991) Dr. Kubler suggests some of the things that a griever can engage in order to overcome grief. Some of these things may include participating in support groups which may either be faith based or secular. Those people going through a complicated grieving process are advised to attend a therapy session with a psychologist or any other qualified professional dealing with mental health. She also advises grievers to take food supplements as well as eating healthy foods (Kubler, 1991) Exercise and work outs like jogging and aerobics are also recommended during this period of grieving. Grieving is also an emotional drainer process thus she recommends enough rest for the person grieving. Places of worship are also known to be very helpful in providing solace and comfort to those grieving. Dr. Kubler recommends that grievers show emotions whenever possible like letting the tears to flow as this facilitates the healing process (Kubler, 1991) At this point of grieving, the griever requires a lot of acceptance and support from friends, family or the people around. The griever may depict a wide range of emotions that may require a lot of understanding from people around (OConnor, Irwin, Wellisch, 2009). To grieve is more than just to show sadness. It involves positive experiences when it deepens interpersonal connections. Grief can cause great wear and tear to both the psyche and the physical body. It is experienced in a very personal way although there are some commonalities to grief. Different people may go through similar reactions to grief such as nightmares, hallucinations and problems with appetite. Other people may experience sleeping disorders while others may go short of breath. Intense or complicated grief can result to complicated responses. These responses may include suicide attempts, murders, shock and even mental disorders. Grief which is complicated can be debilitating, it involves pangs of painful emotions which are recurrent. It may also involve intense longing and yearning for the lost person or thing and also thoughts which are preoccupied with the lost person or thing. Death It is the cessation or termination of biological functions that make up a living organism. Death refers to both a particular event and the condition that result thereby. Many religious beliefs tend to be concerned more with the condition than a particular event. People have different perceptions of dying and death. Many wonder how it occurs or whether the dying just accepts death quietly. Many questions also linger in our minds whether the dying think of their possible decomposition, being consumed by maggots or rotting in hell (Piven, 2004). The process of dying is a process that is known because it is witnessed and described by those involved in it. Certain factors influence the dying experience. These are interpersonal relationships, gender, nature of a disease and the treatment environment, and age. A young child may not understand the nature of death as a mature adult with diverse life experiences would. The dying process is also influenced by gender as a result of different roles played by women and men. A dying man is more likely to think of financial provisions for his family while a dying woman is more concerned with family integrity. Individuals who have experienced a poor interpersonal relationship experience a greater distress while dying than one who had a good relationship (Wass Neimeyer, 1995). Death is seen to be an event as it occurs in a particular time, at a particular place and in a particular way. Death is also seen to be a condition as one is seen to be incapable of carrying the important functions of life. It is a condition that is not reversible. It is also a universal certainty. It forms the centre of many organizations and traditions. Death can be accidental, intentional or natural. Many species die from predation. Intentional activities causing death may involve death by ones self i.e. suicide, death by others i.e. homicide and calamities like war. Death by natural causes is mostly caused indirectly by human activities (Appel, 2005). To determine whether a person is dead or not, there are signs that one can look for. Some of these signs may include; respiration cessation. Breathing stoppage is a good sign that a person is dead. Lack of body metabolism can also suggest that a person is no longer alive. Other signs are a lack of a pulse, body becoming pale a few minutes after the person dies, body temperature reducing and stiffness of the corpse limbs (Appel, 2005). Death can be clinical or legal. When a person ceases to breathe and to circulate blood, the person is declared to be clinically dead. This happens when a person gets a cardiac arrest or the heart simply stops to beat. During this time, the person losses consciousness and the brain activities stop. Procedures to resuscitate the patient are initiated. These include putting the patient under cardiac life support machine which attempts to restart a heartbeat. The resuscitation continues until the recovery of a heartbeat or when a physician determines that the recovery is impossible and the patient is declared legally dead. A brain dead patient with heart and lungs that are functioning can be pronounced to be legally dead (Safar, 1988). Legally, the state brain dead defines death. This occurs when the brain activities both voluntary and involuntary are irreversible and hence cannot sustain life. Irreversible loss of brain functions is caused by direct trauma to the head as a result of a gunshot wound or an accident caused by a motor vehicle. Loss of brain functions can also be caused by massive hemorrhage as result of high blood pressure complications (Murray, 1990). Legal death is when a qualified personnel declares that a patient does not require further medical care and the patient be pronounced dead under the law. Some of the circumstances favorable for a person to be pronounced legally dead is when brain dead. This is when the brain activity is not detected. Psychology of dying According to psychologists, when going through the process of dying one goes through the experience of pain, regret, and fear of the unknown. Our social systems also break down death into distinctive dreads. Example, as a means to obtain moral obedience, religions mold death anxiety into fear of agonizing hell (Wass Neimeyer, 1995). The fears and ideas that people have about death are not innate; they are learnt from their cultural and social environments. A particular cultures system of death conditions the behaviors of the living. For instance, their willingness to receive an organ transplant, suicide contemplation, their will to take risks, to purchase a life insurance, preference for cremation or burial, their attitude towards abortion or capital punishment and their hope for resurrection Religion is also known to shape peoples attitudes toward death. This could be positive or negative. The more religious members display a more consistent attitude of death as measured by the level of fear of death. Those who believe in afterlife have a coherent understanding of situations related to death. Death anxiety, threat and fear result into other forms of psychological distress. Health status is unrelated to the level of fear and anxiety of death (Wass Neimeyer, 1995). Pursuing a death-exposure profession like medicine or attending the morgue does not necessarily increase the fear of death or anxiety. Those professionals or volunteers who work closely with the dying show reduced fear of death and much death competency. Physicians usually have a difficult time with their patients whom they know have no chance of recovery. Telling a patient about his dying is never justified. On the same note, to withhold a patients dying information is not warranted. According to Dr. Kubler (1991), people regardless of their age, religious orientation, race or cultures recognize when they are about to die. Some may start bidding farewell even if death is not expected. Dr. Kubler equates death to being born into a different existence. To die is like to move from one house to another only a more beautiful house this time. It does not matter how death may have occurred because the experience is the same (Kubler, 1991). When one dies, i.e. when the soul leaves the body, it is still possible to perceive what is happening around the dying place i.e. where the body was left. One is able to register everything with a new awareness different from the earthly consciousness. This happens the same way as when one is lying unconscious having a surgery. During surgery, many patients have an out of body experience where they watch surgeons work on them and can actually hear them talk. The same thing happens when a dying patient is in a deep coma. The patient can neither move nor talk but can hear and understand everything being said to him (Kubler, 1991). Nobody dies alone. When one leaves the physical existence, one joins another existence where time, space or distance does not exist. The power of thought is able to bridge long distances in a split of a second. Many people have experienced this when someone who lived many thousands of miles away suddenly appears to them and then later come to realize that they just passed away a few hours or days ago. When patients are on their deathbeds, they report to see people whom they used to see and play with when they were little, only to have forgotten their existence when they grew up. These people die peacefully and happy knowing that someone who loves them will be waiting for them. Generally, people waiting for us on the other side are those who loved us the most (Kubler, 1991). People die at different times; as little children, as young people or very old people. According to Dr. Kubler, the young have already learnt what they were supposed to learn and the old have accomplished what they were supposed to do at the time of their death. If we live well, we will not worry about dying (Kubler, 1991). Conclusion Different people of different religions, race, age and culture have different perceptions of death and the way to go about the loss. The study has identified grief as a reaction to loss, where the victim responds in an emotional, social and physical manner to portray his/her state. In this case, the study has identified that the different reactions exhibited by people as a result of death varies with their diversity cultures, personalities, age, religion and spiritual practices and beliefs. The study has identified several stages taken in a grief process. These include emotional reactions like denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. There are, however different ways of overcoming grief, the study has identified a simple method as group participation in a faith based or secular to be an effective approach. On the other hand, individuals undergoing through a complicated grieving process are advised to attend a therapy session with a psychologist or any other qualified professional dealing with mental health. Eating food supplements and healthy eating habits also helps to overcome grief. Death is seen to be an event as it occurs in a specified time, place, and in a certain way. Death is also seen to be a condition as one is seen to be incapable of carrying the important functions of life. It is a condition that is not reversible. Dr. Kubler has argued that people, regardless of their age, religious orientation, race or cultures recognize when they are about to die. People die at different times; as little children, as young people or very old people. When one dies, i.e. when the soul leaves the body, it is still po ssible to perceive what is happening around the dying place.

Application Of Types Of Lubricant

Application Of Types Of Lubricant A lubricant is a substance (often a liquid) introduced between two moving surfaces to reduce the friction between them, improving efficiency and reducing wear. They may also have the function of dissolving or transporting foreign particles and of distributing heat. Basically there are many types of lubricants; solid lubricant, liquid lubricant and gaseous lubricant. They have their own purpose and application. They are as follows: Purposes: Almost all the Lubricants perform the following key functions. Keep moving parts apart Reduce friction Transfer heat Carry away contaminants debris Transmit power Protect against wear Prevent corrosion Seal for gasses Stop the risk of smoke and fire of objects Applications: Application of Semisolid and Solid Lubricants Grease lubricants are semisolid and have several important advantages: They resist being squeezed out, they are useful under heavy load conditions and in inaccessible parts where the supply of lubricant cannot easily be renewed, and they tend to form a crust that prevents the entry of dirt or grit between contact surfaces. Grease is a mixture of a lubricant and a thickener; often it is made from a mineral oil and a soap. It may be applied in various ways: by packing enclosed parts with it, by pressing it onto moving parts from an adjacent well, by forcing it through grease cups by a spring device, and by pumping it through pressure guns. Solid lubricants are especially useful at high and low temperatures, in high vacuums, and in other applications where oil is not suitable; common solid lubricants are graphite and molybdenum disulfide. Application of Liquid Lubricants Liquid lubricants may be characterized in many different ways. One of the most common ways is by the type of base oil used. Following are the most common types. Lanolin (wool grease, natural water repellant) Water Mineral oils Vegetable (natural oil) Synthetic oils Other liquids Mechanical devices to supply lubricants are called lubricators. A simple form of lubricator is a container mounted over a bearing or other part and provided with a hole or an adjustable valve through which the lubricant is gravity-fed at the desired rate of flow. Wick-feed oilers are placed under moving parts, and by pressing against them they feed oil by capillary action. Horizontal bearings are frequently oiled by a rotating ring or chain that carries oil from a reservoir in the bearing housing and distributes it along the bearing through grooves or channels. Bath oiling is useful where an oil-tight reservoir can be provided in which the bearing journal may be submerged; the pool of oil helps to carry away heat from contact surfaces. Splash-oiling devices are used where gears, bearings, or other parts contained in housings have moving parts that dip into the lubricant and splash it on the bearings or into distribution channels. Centralized oiling systems usually consist of a reserv oir, pump, and tubes through which oil is circulated, while heaters or coolers may be introduced to change the viscosity of the lubricant for various parts of the system. Many oiling operations are automatically synchronized to start and stop with the machinery. P2) Describe the operation and maintenance of three different lubrication systems. Oil lubricating systems can be divided into three categories: Total loss. Self contained. Re-circulating. Total loss: lubrication points are always supplied with fresh lubricant (oil, fluid grease or grease) at specific intervals (time or machine cycle-dependent) during the lubricating cycle. It is the only system that allows the lubricating oil to drain away or evaporate. Self contained : With self contained lubrication, the oil is contained in a reservoir. A gearbox of a vehicle or a lathe is lubricated in this way. The gear are partly submerged in the oil, this process is called splash lubrication. Oil is carried up to the parts that are not submerged, and an oil mist is created inside the gearbox. Ring oiling is another self contained system in which the oil from a reservoir is carried up to the rotating parts of a mechanism. The ring which is rotating with a shaft is partly submerged in the oil and carries it up to the shaft bearings. Re-circulating: With re-circulating system, the oil from a reservoir is fed under pressure direct to the moving parts or delivered as a spray. The flow is continuous and after passing over the contact surfaces, the oil runs back into the reservoir under the effects of gravity. Maintainance: Oil lubrication systems should be checked weekly. This can be carried out by plant operators or maintenance engineering. If needed the tank or reservoir can be topped up taking care not to let any dirt into the system during the process. Systems should not be overfilled as this might caused increases resistance to splash lubricated parts. It might also lead up to overheating of the oil due to excessive churning. Dip sticks and sight gauges are usually provided to indicate the correct level or depth in reservoirs. Samples of lubricating oil are taken for laboratory analysis at regular intervals as part of a condition monitoring procedure. They are examined to see if they contain any solid wear particles. This can provide useful information to the plant manager and maintenance engineer as to the condition of the plant and machinery. All lubricating oils degrade over a period of time due to oxidation. They should be changed including the filters in a re-circulating system. Human should be careful of lubricating oils, since it can cause skin irritation, it can also lead up to cancer. So humans should always use safety equipments and should also wear protective clothing and maybe goggles for the eyes, when handling lubricating oils. References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubricant, engineering book P3) Describe the operation of one seal, one type of packing and two different types of bearing with a typical application for each one. Seals: For the task , I will be doing oil seal. Oil seals are flange packing having an elastomer lip bonded to a metal cup, these lips are loaded to accommodate shaft running out and helps in sealing. There are two types of oil seals. Single seals , which are recommended only for non-pressure service and are best against good lubricating media. And the other one is double sealing, which are normally used to handle pressure in eiher direction along the shaft. The main function of oil seal is to stop whatever fluid is inside from leaking out the clearance between the shaft and housing. Packing For packing, I will be explaining about gland packing seals. they are usually made of cotton, asbestos, flax or jute. In this packing, compressed synthetic fibers are also used and sometimes impregnated with graphite to assist lubrication. It has the advantage to withstand higher internal pressures than lip seals. in this packing, a collar is tightened so that packing material forms a seal around the shaft. A little amount of water for lubrication and cooling the packing is also allowed to drip to the atmosphere. It is normally used as a seal for both rotating and reciprocating shafts. Bearing: The purpose of the bearing is to support and locate rotating and reciprocating shafts or parts in machines and is to transmit force from one member to the other while allowing their relative motion/ movement to occur with the minimum resistance to motion. Two bearing I will choose for this task are plain bearing and roller bearing. Plain bearing: it is a typical bearing made of two parts. For e.g. a rotary plain bearing can be just a shaft through hole. A simple bearing can be pair of flat designed to allow motion. It has flat , cylindrical or spherical surfaces which slide relative to each other. It can be used to carry load in one of several ways depending on their operating conditions, surface, clearance and temperature. It may be used to comprise a rotating collar with a flat surface loaded against a plain or grooved thrust ring. It is also designed to withstand the forcve acting along the axis of the shaft, parallel to the axis of rotation. Roller bearing: this bearing carries a load by placing round elements between the two pieces. The relative motion of the pieces causes the round elements to roll with very little rolling resistance and with little sliding. A rolling element rotary bearing uses a shaft a much larger hole and cylinders called rollers tightly fill the space between shaft and hole. The bearing are often used for axles due to their low rolling friction. References: handout given by teachers P4) Describe two different types of screwed fastening and two different types of rivet giving a typical application for each one. Screwed fastening are used to make semi permanent joints which allow access and removal of fastened parts for maintenance and/or repairs. There are many types of screwed fastening of which the two I am going to mention here are nuts and studs and set screws. stud and nuts: it is a length of bar which has been threaded at each end, the shorter threaded end is screwed into the major component. It is used for inspecting machine cover needs to be removed regularly for maintenance purpose. Set screws: it is also known as machine screws however it does not used a nut. It is usually used to join a thin plate to a larger component. Screws are available with different shapes of head for different applications. It can be used as locking devices. P6)Describe the arrangement and operation of two different kinds of belt drive, two different kinds of chain drive and two different kinds of gear train. A) Belt drive: A belt drive is a method of transferring rotary motion between two shafts. A belt drive includes one pulley on each shaft and one or more continuous belts over the two pulleys. The motion of the driving pulley is, generally, transferred to the driven pulley via the friction between the belt and the pulley. Synchronous/timing belts have teeth and therefore do not depend on friction. Belt drives and gear transmissions have a much greater life expectancy than belt drives. Belt drives also have relatively high inspection and maintenance demands. There are many types of belt in which I am going to explain two of them; 1) Round belts Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a circular (or near circular) groove. They are for use in low torque situations and may be purchased in various lengths or cut to length and joined, either by a staple, gluing or welding (in the case of polyurethane). Early sewing machines utilized a leather belt, joined either by a metal staple or glued, to great effect. 2) Ribbed belt A ribbed belt is a power transmission belt featuring lengthwise grooves. It operates from contact between the ribs of the belt and the grooves in the pulley. Its single-piece structure it reported to offer an even distribution of tension across the width of the pulley where the belt is in contact, a power range up to 600 kW, a high speed ratio, serpentine drives (possibility to drive off the back of the belt), long life, stability and homogeneity of the drive tension, and reduced vibration. The ribbed belt may be fitted on various applications : compressors, fitness bikes, agricultural machinery, food mixers, washing machines, lawn mowers, etc B) Chain drive: Device widely used for the transmission of power where shafts are separated at distances greater than that for which gears are practical. In such cases, sprockets (wheels with teeth shaped to mesh with a chain) take the place of gears and drive one another by means of a chain passing over the sprocket teeth. The chains used in conveyor belts are commonly block chains, and consist of solid or laminated blocks connected by side plates and pins. The blocks engage with teeth on sprocket wheels. Depending on the material being moved, buckets, hooks, or other devices are connected to the blocks. 1) Roller Chain: Motion transmitted using shaft mounted sprockets. Simplex chain consists of length of single links, duplex is length of double links, triplex is length of triple links. Chain drives should ideally be lubricated and regularly cleaned . However experience shows that this drive method will work for long periods without lubrication or maintenance 2) Inverted Tooth: Also called silent. Motion transferred via shaft mounted pinions (similar to gear wheels.) Higher power power capacities, higher speeds and smoother operation. These drive system definitely requires lubrication. (Oil bath, or spray.) C) Gear train: A combination of two or more gears used to transmit motion between two rotating shafts or between a shaft and a slide. It is a set or system of gears arranged to transfer rotational torque from one part of a mechanical system to another. 1) Simple Gear Train:It is made of few components, a small gear at the centre called the sun, several medium sized gears called the planets and a large external gear called the ring gear. The planet gear rolls and revolves about the sun gear and the ring gear rolls on the planet gear. 2) Simple Gear Train:The most common of the gear train is the gear pair connecting parallel shafts. The teeth of this type can be spur, helical or herringbone. The angular velocity is simply the reverse of the tooth ratio. The main limitation of a simple gear train is that the maximum speed change ratio is 10:1. For larger ratio, large size of gear trains are required. The sprockets and chain in the bicycle is an example of simple gear train. P7 Describe the arrangement and operation of two different kinds of transmission shaft and coupling, two different kinds of clutch and two different kinds of brake transmission shaft rotating shaft that transmits rotary motion from the engine to the differential Different types of shafts: Plain transmission Stepped shaft Machine tool spindle Railway rotating axle Non-rotating axle Crankshaft Propeller shaft Crankshaft The crankshaft is that part of an engine which converts linear piston motion into rotation. The crank and connecting rod mechanism was first used in Roman water mills, to convert the reciprocating motion into rotation, the crankshaft has crank throws or crankpins. More than one piston is attached to the crank to provide a smoother delivery of power to the rotating part, though many small engines such as those found in garden machinery, use only a single piston. The configuration of pistons in relation to each other and the crank and their number leads to descriptions such as straight-4 (four pistons in direct line), V6 or V8. Transmission shafts sizes vary from 10 to 100mm but it can go higher then these figures, the maximum length of shaft usually does not exceed 7m. Propeller shaft Propeller shafts transmit power between the source and the machine, the propeller shaft assembly consists of a propeller shaft, a slip joint, and one or more universal joints. This assembly provides a flexible connection through which power is transmitted from the transmission to the live axle. Axle is similar in shape to the shaft and support bending movements only. The propeller shaft may be solid or tubular. A solid shaft is stronger than a hollow or tubular shaft of the same diameter, but a hollow shaft is stronger than a solid shaft of the same weight. A slip joint is put at one end of the propeller shaft to take care of end play. The driving axle, attached to the springs, is free to move up and down, while the transmission is attached to the frame and cannot move. Couplings A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the purpose of transmitting power. The primary purpose of couplings is to join two pieces of rotating equipment while permitting some degree of misalignment or end movement or both. By using couplings, savings can be made in reduced maintenance costs and downtime. Thompson coupling Thompson coupling is a constant velocity universal joint that can be loaded axially and continue to maintain constant velocity over a range of input and output shaft angles with low friction and vibration. It consists of two cardan joints assembled within each other, so eliminating the intermediate shaft along with a control yoke that geometrically constrains their alignment. The use of cardan joints within the Thompson Coupling is to reduce the wear, heat and friction. The Oldham coupling The Oldham coupling transmits rotary motion between shafts that are parallel but not always in perfect alignment. Oldham couplings consist of three members, a floating member is trapped by 90 displaced grooves between the two outer members which connect to the drive shafts. Oldham couplings can bear lateral shaft misalignments up to 10% of nominal shaft diameters and up to 3 angular misalignments. Clutch: A clutch is a mechanism for transmitting rotation, which can be engaged and disengaged. Clutches are useful in devices that have two rotating shafts. In these devices, one shaft is typically driven by a motor or pulley, and the other shaft drives another device. Friction clutch: it connects two separate pieces of shaft, it also has levers and springs to disengage/engage plates. The primary disadvantage of friction clutches is the regular maintenance and adjustment that are required, mating parts will wear due to friction (resulting in slippage), springs will lose memory, and other parts will need replacement or adjustment. Positive clutch: A clutch designed to transmit torque without slip. It consists of two mating surfaces with interconnecting elements, such as teeth, that lock together during engagement to prevent slipping. Positive clutches are also known as mechanical lockup clutches. Brake: A specific type of clutch that slows and stops motion by engaging a rotating shaft and a fixed component. Disc brake The disc brake or disk brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel. A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English), usually made of cast iron or ceramic composites (including carbon, Kevlar and silica), is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads (mounted on a device called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes (both disc and drum) convert friction to heat, but if the brakes get too hot, they will cease to work because they cannot dissipate enough heat. This condition of failure is known as brake fade. Hydraulic brake The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid, typically containing ethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling unit, which is usually near the operator of the vehicle, to the actual brake mechanism, which is usually at or near the wheel of the vehicle. P8 Describe with the aid of diagrams the general layout and operation of a pneumatic actuation system, a hydraulic actuation system and a mechanical handling system Pneumatic autuation system: A pneumatic actuation system is capable of directing an amount of fluid to the contained volume such that a pressure within the contained volume exceeds a pressure external to the contained volume by a predefined positive pressure. With the pressure controller, It can also adjust the pressure within the contained volume when the pressure external to the contained volume changes. The educator can draw fluid from the contained volume to thereby decrease the pressure within the contained volume. The valve is controllably operable in either a pressure mode or a vacuum mode, where the valve either permits the pressure controller to provide fluid to the contained volume, or permits the educator to draw fluid from the contained volume. As such, the system provides precision pressure control over a broad range of external pressures while compensating for rapid pressure changes. Fig. example of pneumatic aculator. Hydraulic actuation system: A hydraulic system for a sterndrive marine propulsion device directs the flow of hydraulic fluid through the body and peripheral components of a gimbal ring in order to reduce the number and length of flexible hydraulic conduits necessary to conduct pressurized hydraulic fluid from a pump to one or more hydraulic cylinders used to control the trim or tilt of a marine drive unit relative to a gimbal housing. Mechanical handling system: Mechanical handling is simply a row of roller/cylindrical or triangle cross-sectional component. They are mostly covered by a long belt but it is not necessary. The rollers or what ever it is used are rotating and the product/component will be moving along and the other rollers will pull it along like the image is shown below. The component/product will move until it reaches its destination or the end of the roller P9 Describe with the aid of diagrams the general layout and operation of a steam power generation plant, a refrigeration system and an air conditioning system. refrigeration system BASIC REFRIGERATION PRINCIPLES If you were to place a hot cup of coffee on a table and leave it for a while, the heat in the coffee would be transferred to the materials in contact with the coffee, i.e. the cup, the table and the surrounding air. As the heat is transferred, the coffee in time cools. Using the same principle, refrigeration works by removing heat from a product and transferring that heat to the outside air. REFRIGERATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS There are five basic components of a refrigeration system, these are: Evaporator Compressor Condenser Expansion Valve Refrigerant; to conduct the heat from the product In order for the refrigeration cycle to operate successfully each component must be present within the refrigeration system. The Evaporator The purpose of the evaporator is to remove unwanted heat from the product, via the liquid refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant contained within the evaporator is boiling at a low-pressure. The level of this pressure is determined by two factors: The rate at which the heat is absorbed from the product to the liquid refrigerant in the evaporator The rate at which the low-pressure vapour is removed from the evaporator by the compressor To enable the transfer of heat, the temperature of the liquid refrigerant must be lower than the temperature of the product being cooled. Once transferred, the liquid refrigerant is drawn from the evaporator by the compressor via the suction line. When leaving the evaporator coil the liquid refrigerant is in vapour form. The Compressor The purpose of the compressor is to draw the low-temperature, low-pressure vapour from the evaporator via the suction line. Once drawn, the vapour is compressed. When vapour is compressed it rises in temperature. Therefore, the compressor transforms the vapour from a low-temperature vapour to a high-temperature vapour, in turn increasing the pressure. The vapour is then released from the compressor in to the discharge line. The Condenser The purpose of the condenser is to extract heat from the refrigerant to the outside air. The condenser is usually installed on the reinforced roof of the building, which enables the transfer of heat. Fans mounted above the condenser unit are used to draw air through the condenser coils.The temperature of the high-pressure vapour determines the temperature at which the condensation begins. As heat has to flow from the condenser to the air, the condensation temperature must be higher than that of the air; usually between 12Â °C and -1Â °C. The high-pressure vapour within the condenser is then cooled to the point where it becomes a liquid refrigerant once more, whilst retaining some heat. The liquid refrigerant then flows from the condenser in to the liquid line. The Expansion Valve Within the refrigeration system, the expansion valve is located at the end of the liquid line, before the evaporator. The high-pressure liquid reaches the expansion valve, having come from the condenser. The valve then reduces the pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through the orifice, which is located inside the valve. On reducing the pressure, the temperature of the refrigerant also decreases to a level below the surrounding air. This low-pressure, low-temperature liquid is then pumped in to the evaporator M1) . Compare and contrast the operation and uses of flat plate clutches, centrifugal clutches and fluid couplings in mechanical power transmission systems flat plate clutches centrifugal clutches fluid couplings The fluid coupling is operated simply by a hydraulic fluid and the driver bladed wheel. The driver wheel rotates and rotates the fluid in between follows it along and cause the driven bladed wheel to rotate along the hydraulic fluid. The hydraulic and driven bladed wheel are still under motion even if the driver bladed wheel stops. The friction disc is sandwiched between the machined surfaces of the flywheel and the pressure plate when the pressure plate is bolted to the outer edge of the flywheel face. The clamping force on the friction facings is provided by the diaphragm spring. Unloaded, it is a dished shape. As the pressure plate cover tightens, it pivots on its fulcrum rings, and flattens out to exert a force on the pressure plate, and the facings. It is used in gears, turbine and many more. A clutch operated by centrifugal force from the speed of rotation of a shaft, as when heavy expanding friction shoes act on the internal surface of a rim clutch, or a flyball-type mechanism is used to activate clutching surfaces on cones and disks. Weights wherein each weight has an arc-shaped clutch shoe and is pivotally mounted with a lever foot on a carrier disc on the drive end of the clutch. After reaching a specific rpm, the clutch shoes are pressed under the action of centrifugal force against the inner wall surface of a clutch drum for providing friction-tight torque transmission. The clutch drum surrounds the clutch shoes. The centrifugal clutch includes a carrier disc on which the centrifugal weights are pivotally mounted. A cover disc is held axially tight at the sides of the centrifugal weights which lie opposite the carrier disc. This cover disc radially covers the clutch shoes so that axial guide play is provided. It is used in generators. Device used to transmit rotating mechanical power. It has been used in automobile transmissions as an alternative to a mechanical clutch. There is no mechanical interconnection between the impeller and the rotor (i.e. the driving and driven units) and the power is transmitted by virtue of the fluid filled in the coupling. The impeller when rotated by the prime mover imparts velocity and energy to the fluid, which is converted into mechanical energy in the rotor thus rotating it. It is used n aviation, engineering companies and many more. M2) Compare and contrast the operation and use of pneumatic and hydraulic actuation systems Pneumatic autuation system: A pneumatic actuation system is capable of directing an amount of fluid to the contained volume such that a pressure within the contained volume exceeds a pressure external to the contained volume by a predefined positive pressure. With the pressure controller, It can also adjust the pressure within the contained volume when the pressure external to the contained volume changes. The educator can draw fluid from the contained volume to thereby decrease the pressure within the contained volume. The valve is controllably operable in either a pressure mode or a vacuum mode, where the valve either permits the pressure controller to provide fluid to the contained volume, or permits the educator to draw fluid from the contained volume. As such, the system provides precision pressure control over a broad range of external pressures while compensating for rapid pressure changes. pneumatic actuator system provides the advantage of lower weight and more economical construction. One distinct adv antage of a pneumatic system is that it may utilize a source of bottled gas or the like as a potential energypower source. Fig. example of pneumatic aculator. Hydraulic actuation system: A hydraulic system for a sterndrive marine propulsion device directs the flow of hydraulic fluid through the body and peripheral components of a gimbal ring in order to reduce the number and length of flexible hydraulic conduits necessary to conduct pressurized hydraulic fluid from a pump to one or more hydraulic cylinders used to control the trim or tilt of a marine drive unit relative to a gimbal housing. advantages of pneumatic acutators over hydruallic actuators Relatively cheaper. The force transmitter, air, is freely available. Cleaner system as air leakage do not create a mess. Hydraulic oil becomes very hot after continuous use. Can cause injury if someone comes in contact. Generally have open circuits and we dont have to worry about the return circuit. Justify the use of Shell Tellus oil 27 lubricant and the splash lubrication system in the lathe machines in the College machine shop. Shell Tellus Oils oil 27 are premium quality hydraulic oils generally acknowledged to be the standard-setter in the field of engineering hydraulic and fluid power lubrication. The Shell Tellus oil 27 lubricants are mineral oils.It has an active anti-corrosion additive effectively protects hydraulic systems from corrosion. Water collects in the lubrication system due to condensation with soluble cutting fluid and is emulsified to provide further protection. It has excellent anti wear which means that lathe machine can be used for longer unlike other lubricants, it also helps improve the efficiency of filtration systems to reach system cleanliness targets.The dirt can also clean easily off. The lubricant provides anti-war and increase the resistance of the lathe material surface. It also helps to operate under high temperature; actually it works as a coolant. The lubricant also does a quick air release without excessive foaming. Other point is that the lubricant has very low environmental impact because of the zinc free technology. It also doesnt react with other chemical when it is in use. Shell tellus oil 27 has high lubrication properties and excellent low friction characteristics in hydraulic systems operating at low or high speed. Prevents stick-slip problems in critical applications enabling very fine control of machinery.

Echo Personality Disorder :: essays research papers

Echo Personality Disorder is a specific and highly differentiated form of dependency, marked by behaviours of compliance and a need to 'mirror' significant others -parents, spouse, friends, employer. It has been found that those with EPD are highly attracted to relationships with individuals who show marked narcissistic tendencies. This mirroring behaviour was the reason for choosing the name Echo personality disorder, which is based on the Greek myth of Narcissus and Echo. In this story Echo, a forest nymph, falls completely in love with the egocentric youth Narcissus, and when he shows clear signs of rejecting her, she persists in her attatchement to him and will not be moved from her aim. She finally satisfies him with the masochistic task of echoing back to him all that he says. This too is the central feature of EPD behaviour in relationships, where the individual will mirror, echo, and compliment another at the expense of their own self-worth and dignity. Self descriptions by EPD sufferers focus strongly on percieved fears of abandonment, rejection, and loss, and these agonizing feelings are the driving force behind the above-mentioned interpersonal coping style (mirroring others). These individuals protect themselves from abandonment/rejection by being so agreeable to others, via their mirroring capacity, that chances of re-experiencing abandonment agony is brought to a low minimum. Unfortunately this approach amounts to a false existence with little or no true self expression, and eventually leads to poor psychological health. Characteristic experiential history for EPD often involves individuals being parented by caretakers who are themselves self-absorbed or narcissistic. In this environment the child learns that asserting ones true self will be met with a form of (often serial) rejection, to which they respond by substituting compliant behaviour in place of true selfhood. This 'compliant' behaviour can then be witnessed as a stable feature throughout the childs growing-up years, with other school children, and within the family. Depression, smoking, alcoholism, addictive behaviour all occur with very high frequency in this disorder. On a positive note, EPD people are excellent contributors to society, and to family, as they are found to be very perceptive of the needs of others.

Individual Freedom vs. Majority Rule Essay -- Politics Political Scien

Individual Freedom vs. Majority Rule Freedom is one of the most central and certainly most emotive issues in political philosophy. It has been discussed since the times of ancient Greece, and is still as controversial and divisive a topic as ever. This question deals with two separate questions concerning freedom: Firstly, why we consider freedom necessary, and secondly, what exactly is meant by freedom. Clearly, the answer to the second part will greatly affect the answer to the first, but it shall be seen that it is a very challenging task to arrive at a definition of freedom. It is possible, however, to make this job easier by not strictly defining freedom, and using an examination into the desirability of freedom to help form this definition. This will be done below. One of the first issues to be resolved is the relationship between 'freedom' and 'liberty'. There has been several theses proposing a distinction between these two concepts. Theorists such as Belaief and Pitkin claim that liberty is a political term, while freedom is metaphysical. This distinction, however, is a false one. The only difference between these two terms is linguistic convenience. To illustrate, in the example above, liberty could be described as 'political freedom'. This shows the error in the apparent distinction. The two terms are synonymous, and will be used interchangeably in the remainder of this essay. We use the terms 'freedom' and 'liberty' in everyday language without giving much thought to a detailed description of the concept to which these terms refer. It is possible, to a certain degree, to examine why we see freedom as morally good, also without completely defining it. The investigation into a definition of freedom wi... ...as a whole. In answering this final question raised, the conclusion to the essay emerges. We have seen how difficult it is to simply define liberty as a single conception, but have discovered many properties that a statement of freedom must posses. In the question between the conflicts of freedom, where two persons individual freedoms create a zero-sum game, the idea of social freedom emerges, and the idea that it is possible for there to be restrictions on an individual's freedom that are morally desirable. To best, and most simply explain in what sense we want people to be free, a balance must be found between the extent to which society may restrict an individual's freedom, and vice versa. As can be seen by observing politics throughout the ages, it is finding this balance that has proven to be the most challenging aspect of the ongoing question of freedom. Individual Freedom vs. Majority Rule Essay -- Politics Political Scien Individual Freedom vs. Majority Rule Freedom is one of the most central and certainly most emotive issues in political philosophy. It has been discussed since the times of ancient Greece, and is still as controversial and divisive a topic as ever. This question deals with two separate questions concerning freedom: Firstly, why we consider freedom necessary, and secondly, what exactly is meant by freedom. Clearly, the answer to the second part will greatly affect the answer to the first, but it shall be seen that it is a very challenging task to arrive at a definition of freedom. It is possible, however, to make this job easier by not strictly defining freedom, and using an examination into the desirability of freedom to help form this definition. This will be done below. One of the first issues to be resolved is the relationship between 'freedom' and 'liberty'. There has been several theses proposing a distinction between these two concepts. Theorists such as Belaief and Pitkin claim that liberty is a political term, while freedom is metaphysical. This distinction, however, is a false one. The only difference between these two terms is linguistic convenience. To illustrate, in the example above, liberty could be described as 'political freedom'. This shows the error in the apparent distinction. The two terms are synonymous, and will be used interchangeably in the remainder of this essay. We use the terms 'freedom' and 'liberty' in everyday language without giving much thought to a detailed description of the concept to which these terms refer. It is possible, to a certain degree, to examine why we see freedom as morally good, also without completely defining it. The investigation into a definition of freedom wi... ...as a whole. In answering this final question raised, the conclusion to the essay emerges. We have seen how difficult it is to simply define liberty as a single conception, but have discovered many properties that a statement of freedom must posses. In the question between the conflicts of freedom, where two persons individual freedoms create a zero-sum game, the idea of social freedom emerges, and the idea that it is possible for there to be restrictions on an individual's freedom that are morally desirable. To best, and most simply explain in what sense we want people to be free, a balance must be found between the extent to which society may restrict an individual's freedom, and vice versa. As can be seen by observing politics throughout the ages, it is finding this balance that has proven to be the most challenging aspect of the ongoing question of freedom.